A bidirectional cell signaling pathway that may regulate cell function, metabolism, or other aspects of physiology. Most signaling pathways are unidirectional. However, an axis may involve two or more signaling proteins and their secreting organs or cells in a type of feedback loop. For example, the growth hormone/IGF axis, also known as the Hypothalamic–pituitary–somatotropic axis, is a highly regulated pathway involving IGF-1 (produced by the liver), growth hormone (produced by the pituitary), and growth hormone-releasing hormone (produced by the hypothalamus).

A peptide hormone secreted by the beta cells of the pancreatic islets cells. Insulin maintains normal blood glucose levels by facilitating the uptake of glucose into cells; regulating carbohydrate, lipid, and protein metabolism; and promoting cell division and growth. Insulin resistance, a characteristic of type 2 diabetes, is a condition in which normal insulin levels do not produce a biological response, which can lead to high blood glucose levels.

One of the most potent natural activators of the AKT signaling pathway. IGF-1 stimulates cell growth and proliferation, inhibits programmed cell death, mediates the effects of growth hormone, and may contribute to aging and enhancing the growth of cancer after it has been initiated. Similar in molecular structure to insulin, IGF-1 plays a role in growth during childhood and continues later in life to have anabolic, as well as neurotrophic effects. Protein intake increases IGF-1 levels in humans, independent of total caloric consumption.

A sulfur-containing amino acid that is a constituent of most proteins. It is an essential nutrient in the diet of vertebrates. Methionine restriction in lower organisms has been shown to extend lifespan.

A gene in two or more species that has evolved from a common ancestor during a speciation event. Orthologous genes encode proteins with the same function in different species.