A neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive memory loss, spatial disorientation, cognitive dysfunction, and behavioral changes. The pathological hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease include amyloid-beta plaques, tau tangles, and reduced brain glucose uptake. Most cases of Alzheimer's disease do not run in families and are described as "sporadic." The primary risk factor for sporadic Alzheimer's disease is aging, with prevalence roughly doubling every five years after age 65. Roughly one-third of people aged 85 and older have Alzheimer's. The major genetic risk factor for Alzheimer's is a variant in the apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene called APOE4.

A toxic 42 amino acid peptide that aggregates and forms plaques in the brain with age. Amyloid-beta is associated with Alzheimer's disease, a progressive neurodegenerative disease that can occur in middle or old age and is the most common cause of dementia. Heat shock proteins have been shown to inhibit the early aggregation of amyloid beta 42 and reduce amyloid beta plaque toxicity ^[1].

Hard, insoluble clumps of amyloid-beta protein. Amyloid plaques are a pathological hallmark of Alzheimer's disease. Formation of amyloid plaques occurs well before symptoms of Alzheimer's disease manifest.

An ancient system of medicine. Ayurvedic medicine originated in India more than 3,000 years ago. It is based on a holistic approach that emphasizes treating both mind and body through diet, exercise, sleep, relaxation, and mindfulness.

A general term referring to cognitive decline that interferes with normal daily living. Dementia commonly occurs in older age and is characterized by progressive loss of memory, executive function, and reasoning. Approximately 70 percent of all dementia cases are due to Alzheimer’s disease.

Pertaining to the toxic effect of excess blood sugars on nerve cells. Glycotoxic substances, or glycotoxins, include advanced glycation end products (AGEs), which are produced when a sugar molecule bonds to a protein or lipid molecule. They can be consumed in the diet or produced by the body as normal byproducts of glucose metabolism. AGEs promote oxidative stress, trigger production of reactive oxygen species, and stimulate the release of proinflammatory cytokines. AGEs are elevated in people with chronic high blood glucose levels, such as those with diabetes.

A large class of proteins involved in cell signaling. Also known as guanine nucleotide-binding proteins, G proteins receive signals from cellular receptors and deliver them to the inside of the cell, a process that facilitates signal amplification.

A naturally occurring substance capable of stimulating cellular growth, proliferation, healing, and differentiation. Growth factors typically act as signaling molecules between cells. Examples include cytokines and hormones that bind to specific receptors on the surface of their target cells.

A blood test that measures the amount of glycated hemoglobin in a person’s red blood cells. The hemoglobin A1c test is often used to assess long-term blood glucose control in people with diabetes. Glycation is a chemical process in which a sugar molecule bonds to a lipid or protein molecule, such as hemoglobin. As the average amount of plasma glucose increases, the fraction of glycated hemoglobin increases in a predictable way. In diabetes mellitus, higher amounts of glycated hemoglobin, indicating poorer control of blood glucose levels, have been associated with cardiovascular disease, nephropathy, neuropathy, and retinopathy. Also known as HbA1c.

A critical element of the body’s immune response. Inflammation occurs when the body is exposed to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. It is a protective response that involves immune cells, cell-signaling proteins, and pro-inflammatory factors. Acute inflammation occurs after minor injuries or infections and is characterized by local redness, swelling, or fever. Chronic inflammation occurs on the cellular level in response to toxins or other stressors and is often “invisible.” It plays a key role in the development of many chronic diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes.

A peptide hormone secreted by the beta cells of the pancreatic islets cells. Insulin maintains normal blood glucose levels by facilitating the uptake of glucose into cells; regulating carbohydrate, lipid, and protein metabolism; and promoting cell division and growth. Insulin resistance, a characteristic of type 2 diabetes, is a condition in which normal insulin levels do not produce a biological response, which can lead to high blood glucose levels.

A physiological condition in which cells fail to respond to the normal functions of the hormone insulin. During insulin resistance, the pancreas produces insulin, but the cells in the body become resistant to its actions and are unable to use it as effectively, leading to high blood sugar. Beta cells in the pancreas subsequently increase their production of insulin, further contributing to a high blood insulin level.

An essential mineral present in many foods. Iron participates in many physiological functions and is a critical component of hemoglobin. Iron deficiency can cause anemia, fatigue, shortness of breath, and heart arrhythmias.

Otherwise known as intestinal permeability – a condition in which gaps form between the tight junctions of the endothelial cells that line the gut. These gaps allow pathogens like bacteria or endotoxins – toxins that are released when bacteria die – to leak through the intestinal wall and pass directly into the bloodstream. The most common endotoxin is lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a major component of the cell membrane of gram-negative bacteria. If LPS leaks into the bloodstream, it can trigger an acute inflammatory reaction. LPS has been linked with a number of chronic diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease and cardiovascular disease.

An infectious disease caused by bacteria of the Borrelia type which is spread by ticks. The most common sign of infection is an expanding non-painful area of redness on the skin, fever, headache and feeling tired. Lyme disease is the most common disease spread by ticks in the Northern Hemisphere and is estimated to affect 300,000 people a year in the United States and 65,000 people a year in Europe.

A chemical that causes Parkinson's disease-like symptoms. MPTP undergoes enzymatic modification in the brain to form MPP+, a neurotoxic compound that interrupts the electron transport system of dopaminergic neurons. MPTP is chemically related to rotenone and paraquat, pesticides that can produce parkinsonian features in animals.

A substance that is detrimental to the nervous system. Neurotoxins damage neurons, interrupting the transmission of signals. They can be found in the environment in both natural and man-made products. The body produces some substances that are neurotoxic. Examples of neurotoxins include lead, alcohol, tetrodotoxin (from pufferfish), and nitric oxide.

In general, anything that can produce disease. Typically, the term is used to describe an infectious agent such as a virus, bacterium, prion, fungus, or other microorganism.

Porphyromonas gingivalis, a gram-negative bacterium found in the oral cavity and throughout the digestive tract of humans. P. gingivalis promotes inflammation of the gums (periodontitis) and is the primary bacterium present in dental plaque, which promotes periodontal disease. Periodontal disease has been associated with the pathogenesis of several diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease, rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease.

A female sex hormone produced primarily in the ovaries. Progesterone participates in the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and embryogenesis. It is the primary pro-gestational hormone in humans and is the dominant hormone in the second half (luteal) phase of the menstrual cycle.

A chemical reaction in which an atom, molecule, or ion gains one or more electrons.

The junction between one neuron and another or a gland or muscle cell. Synapses are critical elements in the transmission of nerve signals. Their formation is necessary for the establishment and maintenance of the brain’s neuronal network and the precision of its circuitry.

A complex developmental process during which synapses are formed (synaptoblastic activity) and eliminated (synaptoclastic activity) in the brain. Synaptogenesis is the net result of a balance of the two activities and is critical in the establishment and maintenance of the brain’s neuronal network and the precision of its circuitry.

A microtubule-bound protein that forms the neurofibrillary "tau tangles" associated with Alzheimer's disease. Tau tangles disrupt transport of metabolites, lipids, and mitochondria across a neuron to the synapse where neurotransmission occurs. Diminished slow-wave sleep is associated with higher levels of tau in the brain. Elevated tau is a sign of Alzheimer's disease and has been linked to cognitive decline.

Abnormal aggregates of hyperphosphorylated tau, a protein found in the brain. Tau tangles are associated with traumatic brain injury and chronic traumatic encephalopathy and are one of the defining characteristics of Alzheimer’s disease. They inhibit normal brain function, and the degree of cognitive impairment in diseases such as Alzheimer’s is significantly correlated with their presence.

The primary male sex hormone. Testosterone is critical to the maintenance of fertility and secondary sexual characteristics in males. Low testosterone levels may increase risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease.

The highest level of intake of a given nutrient likely to pose no adverse health effects for nearly all healthy people. As intake increases above the upper intake level, the risk of adverse effects increases.

Pertaining to sustenance. Trophic factors are critical for brain development and may help treat or prevent brain injuries and disorders. Examples include modulators of growth and maintenance, such as insulin and nerve growth factor.

A fat-soluble vitamin stored in the liver and fatty tissues. Vitamin D plays key roles in several physiological processes, such as the regulation of blood pressure, calcium homeostasis, immune function, and the regulation of cell growth. In the skin, vitamin D decreases proliferation and enhances differentiation. Vitamin D synthesis begins when 7-dehydrocholesterol, which is found primarily in the skin’s epidermal layer, reacts to ultraviolet light and converts to vitamin D. Subsequent processes convert D to calcitriol, the active form of the vitamin. Vitamin D can be obtained from dietary sources, too, such as salmon, mushrooms, and many fortified foods.